To pity, however, that passion is especially opposed which they call indignation. For to the pain arising from adverse circumstances in which some one is undeservedly involved, the pain is after a certain manner opposed, which arises from the same manners, on account of the prosperity which some one unworthily obtains. And both these passions are the offspring of worthy manners. For it is necessary to condole and compassionate those who are undeservedly unfortunate in their affairs; and to be indignant with those who are undeservedly prosperous. For that which happens to any one contrary to his desert is unjust. Hence, also, we attribute indignation to the gods. Envy, likewise, may appear to be after the same manner opposed to pity, as being proximate to and the same with indignation. It is however different from it. For envy also is a turbulent pain arising from the prosperity of another person but is not a pain arising from undeserved prosperity, but from the prosperity of one who is equal and similar to him who is envious. Both these passions, however, agree in this, that each is pained for the prosperity of another, because he is prosperous, and not because any evil arises from thence to the subject of these passions. For if this were not the case, one of these passions would no longer be envy, and the other indignation; but each would be fear, if pain and perturbation were produced, because some evil would befal the subject of these passions from the prosperity of another.
It is likewise evident what the things and persons are which occasion envy, and how those are affected that are envious, if envy is a certain pain arising from apparent prosperity in the above-mentioned goods, when it happens to persons of a similar condition, not because this prosperity does not befal him who is envious, but because it falls to the lot of those who are the objects of envy. For those that envy are such as to whom certain persons are similar, or appear to be so; I mean, who are similar in birth, in alliance, in habit, in reputation, and external abundance. Men, likewise, envy who want but little of possessing every good. Hence, those who perform great actions, and are prosperous, are envious; for they fancy that whatever accedes to others is taken from themselves. Those also are envious that are remarkably honoured for a certain thing, and especially when they are honoured for wisdom, or felicity. Likewise, those who are ambitious, are more envious than those who are unambitious. Those also are envious who wish to seem to be wise, but are not so in reality; for they are ambitious of the honour which is attendant on wisdom. And in short, those are envious who are lovers of renown in any pursuit; for in this pursuit they are envious. The pusillanimous also are envious; for all things appear to them to be great. Hence, therefore, it is evident what the goods are which are the objects of envy. For envy is excited by those actions through which men pursue glory, contend for honour, and aspire after the good opinion of others. And nearly, in all such things as are the effects of good fortune there is envy. But this is especially the case in those things which men either desire themselves, or fancy they ought to possess; or in those things, in the possession of which they are a little superior, or a little inferior to others. It is likewise evident who the persons are that are the objects of envy; for this was at the same time shown from what has been said about those who are envious. For men envy those who are near to them in time, in place, in age, and in renown. Whence it is said, “That which is kindred knows how to envy.” Men also envy those with whom they contend for honour; for they contend for honour with the persons above-mentioned. But no one contends with those who lived ten thousand years ago, or with those who will exist ten thousand years hence, or with those who are dead; nor yet with those who dwell at the pillars of Hercules; nor with those to whom in their own opinion, or in the opinion of others, they are far inferior. Nor in like manner, do they contend with those to whom they are much superior. Since, however, men contend for honour with their antagonists, and rivals, and in short, with those who aspire after the same things, it is necessary that they should especially envy those persons. Hence, it is said by Hesiod The potter envies the potter. Those also who have scarcely obtained, or who have not at all obtained a thing, envy those who have rapidly obtained it. Men likewise envy those who by obtaining or acting rightly in any thing, are a disgrace to them; but these are near and similar. For it is evident in this case that those who envy did not obtain the good which those whom they envy obtained through their own fault; so that this being painful produces envy. They also envy those who either have possessed these things, or who have obtained what it is fit for them to possess, or which they once possessed; and on this account the more elderly envy the younger. Those likewise who have: spent much on the same thing, envy those who have spent little on it. It is also evident what the things and persons are in which men of this description rejoice, and in what manner they are affected. For as those who are not thus, affected are pained, so those who are so affected are delighted with contrary circumstances, i.e. they rejoice when they possess the good which those are deprived of who resemble themselves. Hence, if the orator disposes the judges to be affected in the same manner as those are who are envious; and if he shows that those who implore pity, or desire to obtain a certain good are such as we have said those are who are envied, it is evident that they will not obtain pity from their masters.
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