In the Classical Liberal Arts Academy’s Latin Grammar course, we are happy to provide students the opportunity to study the famous Latin Grammar of the Jesuit schoolmaster Emmanuel Alvarez. In the last two lessons, we learned about the comparison of adjectives and how they are formed. In this lesson, we learn about adjectives that form comparative and superlative forms in irregular ways. To complete the objectives of this lesson, complete the following tasks:
- Study the lesson for mastery.
- Memorize the rules in the lesson.
- Complete the lesson assessment.
Lesson
The text of this lesson is provided below, with notes following.
I. Anomala sunt: bonus melior optimus; malus pejor pessimus; magnus major maximus; parvus, minor, minimus; parum, minus, minimum; magis, maxime; minus, minime; multum, plus, plurimum. Quanquam plus positivum putat Asinius apud Gellium.
Translation: (The) irregulars are: bonus (good), melior (better), optimus (best); malus (bad), pejor (worse), pessimus (worst); magnus (great), major (greater), maximus (greatest); parvus (little), minor (less), minimus (least); parum (small), minus (smaller), minimum (smallest); magis (more), maxime (most); minus (less), minime (least); multum (many), plus (more), plurimum (most). Although Asinius, according to Gellius, thinks plus is a positive form.
This rule introduces irregular adjectives and adverbs that don’t follow the standard patterns for forming comparatives (e.g., -ior) and superlatives (e.g., -issimus). For example, bonus (good) doesn’t become bonior or bonissimus but instead uses melior (better) and optimus (best). Students should memorize these forms, as they are common in Latin texts. Notice that some words, like magis and minus, are adverbs, not adjectives, and their forms (maxime, minime) are used to modify verbs or adjectives. The note about plus suggests a debate among ancient scholars about whether plus is a positive form (like multum) rather than a comparative. For now, treat plus as the comparative of multum. Practice by comparing things in Latin sentences, e.g., Ego sum bonus, tu es melior (I am good, you are better).
II. Item illa nequam, nequior, nequissimus; superus, superior, supremus; exterus, exterior, extremus, et Plinius extimus; inferus, inferior, infimus apud Cic.; citra, citerior, citimus; ultra, ulterior, ultimus; prior, primus; intus, interior, intimus; post, posterior, postremus; prope, propior, proximus; ante, anterior; diu, diutius, diutissime.
Translation: Likewise, these: nequam (wicked), nequior (more wicked), nequissimus (most wicked); superus (high), superior (higher), supremus (highest); exterus (external), exterior (more external), extremus (most external), and Plinius says extimus; inferus (below), inferior (further below), infimus (furthest below) according to Cicero; citra (before), citerior (more before), citimus (most before); ultra (beyond), ulterior (further beyond), ultimus (furthest beyond); prior (before), primus (first); intus (within), interior (further within), intimus (furthest within); post (after), posterior (next after), postremus (last); prope (near), propior (nearer), proximus (nearest); ante (before), anterior (earlier); diu (a long time), diutius (a longer time), diutissime (the longest time).
This rule expands the list of irregular adjectives and adverbs, many of which relate to position, time, or degree. Most follow a pattern where the comparative ends in -ior and the superlative in -imus or -issimus, but their positive forms are less common or irregular. For example, superus (high) is rare, but superior (higher) and supremus (highest) are frequently used. Students should note that some words, like prior and primus, lack a standard positive form or have unique superlatives (primus instead of prissimus). Adverbs like diu (for a long time) follow a similar irregular pattern. To master these, try using them in context, e.g., Ego sto propior, tu es proximus (I stand nearer, you are nearest). Pay attention to the authors cited (e.g., Cicero, Plinius), as they show how these forms appear in classical texts.
III. Ocyor, ocyssimus; potior, potissimus; positivis carent, nisi sint ab okys Graeco et potis Latino. Novissimus et summus superlativum tantum habent, auctore Diomede, quibus adde IMUS.
Translation: Ocyor (more swift), ocyssimus (most swift) and potior (more able), potissimus (most able) lack positive forms, unless they are derived from okys (swift) in Greek and potis (able) in Latin. Novissimus (most new) and summus (highest) only have the superlative, according to the author Diomede, to which add imus.
This rule highlights adjectives that lack a positive form in Latin, meaning you won’t find a base form like “swift” or “able” in common use. Instead, you start with the comparative (ocyor, potior) or superlative (ocyssimus, potissimus). The reference to Greek okys and Latin potis suggests possible origins, but for practical purposes, treat these as irregular. Additionally, novissimus (most new), summus (highest), and imus (lowest) only exist as superlatives, so they don’t have positive or comparative forms. This is useful in texts where extreme qualities are emphasized, e.g., Mons summus est (The mountain is the highest). Students should practice recognizing these in readings and avoid trying to invent missing forms.
IV. A nominibus substantivis juvenis et senex fiunt tantum comparativa junior et senior. Penitior et penitissimus a positivo penitus, a, um. Plautus writes, “Usque ex penitis faucibus.”
Translation: From the substantive nouns juvenis (young man) and senex (old man) are made only the comparatives junior (younger) and senior (older). Penitior (deeper) and penitissimus (most deeply) come from the positive adjective penitus, a, um (deep). Plautus writes, “Usque ex penitis faucibus” (“Even from the bottom of my throat”).
This rule explains how the nouns juvenis and senex produce comparative adjectives (junior, senior) but lack superlatives (junissimus or senissimus don’t exist). This is because juvenis and senex are already specific in meaning (young man, old man), so only relative comparisons make sense. The adjective penitus (deep) follows a more regular pattern, forming penitior and penitissimus. The quote from Plautus shows penitus in action, emphasizing depth in a vivid phrase. Students can practice by creating sentences like Ego sum junior, tu es senior (I am younger, you are older) or using penitus in descriptive phrases, e.g., Vox venit ex penitis faucibus (The voice comes from the depths of the throat).
Summary
In this lesson, we have studied a number of irregular adjectives as regards the formation of comparatives and superlatives.f adjectives are formed in Latin. We have learned a simple, general rule and four exceptions to that general rule.
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