In the last lesson, we learn about the comparison of adjectives. In this lesson, we learn how comparative and superlative adjectives are formed in Latin. To complete the objectives of this lesson, complete the following tasks:
- Study the lesson for mastery.
- Memorize the rules in the lesson.
- Complete the lesson assessment.
Lesson
The text of this lesson is provided below, with notes following. If you have any questions on this lesson, please post them on the course support forum in the Study Center.
Rule
I. Comparativa fiunt a casu litera I finito addita syllaba OR; superlativa vero addita litera S et SIMUS, ut justus, justi, justior, justissimus; fortis, forti, fortior, fortissimus.
Translation: Comparative (adjectives) are made from the case terminated with the letter I, with the syllable OR added; the superlative (adjectives) on the other hand, with the letter S added and SIMUS, as, justus (just), justi, justior (more just), justissimus (most just); fortis (strong), forti, fortior (stronger), fortissimus (stongest).
In what we would call “regular” situations, the comparative form is made by adding -OR, just as we add -ER to adjectives in English. In English, we say “strong” (positive) and “stronger” (comparative). In Latin, we read “fortis” (positive) and “fortior” (comparative).
The superlative form is made by adding S and SIMUS, as we add -EST in English. In English, we say “strong” (positive) and “strongest” (superlative). In Latin we read “fortis” (positive) and “fortissimus” (superlative).
This, again, is how comparatives and superlatives are formed in “regular” adjectives. Note that the declension of the comparative will be according to that of 3rd declension nouns (coming soon), and the declension of the superlative will be that of 1st and 2nd declension nouns.
Exception l
II. Positiva ER syllaba terminata gignunt superlativa addito RIMUS, ut tener, tenerrimus; saluber. saluberrimus; prosper, prosperrimus apud Suetonium. Sic veterrimus et maturrimus ab antiquis veler et matur; dicimus etiam maturissimus. A dexter et sinister, dexterior et sinisterior sine superlativo, nam dextimus et sinistimus idem sunt quod dexter et sinister. Deterior et deterrimus ab obsoleto deter, detera, deterum.
Translation: Positive (adjectives) terminated with the syllable ER make the superlative with RIMUS added, as tener, tenerrimus; saluber, saluberrimus; prosper, prosperrimus with Suetonius. Likewise veterrimus and maturrimus from the ancient words veter et matur; we say also maturissimus. From dexter and sinister, dexterior and sinisterior without a superlative, because dextimus and sinistimus the same (in meaning) are as dexter et sinister. Deterior and deterrimus from the obsolete adjective noun deter, detera, deterum.
When an adjective ends in -ER in the nominative case, we have an “irregular” situation. An example of this is the adjective tener (tender, soft). For such adjectives, the superlative form is made not by adding SSIMUS, but RIMUS, making pronunciation smoother. In Latin we read “tener” (positive) and “tenerrimus” (superlative).
Alvarez notes that this not always true and in our reading, we will find examples like maturissimus, which follows the regular rule. Alvarez also notes that other superlative forms are found, like dextimus and sinistimus for dexter and sinister, which may actually be shortened forms of dext(err)imus and sinist(err)imus.
Exception ll
lll. Facilis, difficilis, gracilis, humilis, similis, dissimilis, superlativa pariunt syllaba IS mutata in LIMUS: facillimus, difficillimus, gracillimus, humillimus, simillimus, dissimillimus: sic imbecillimus. Utilis habet utilissimus. “Sic enim facillime quod tibi utilissimum erit, consilii capies.” (Dolabella) Vide et Plinium et Cicero compositione utitur. “Multas ad res perutiles Xenophontis sunt libri.”; Terenius circumlocutione utitur: “Quibus id maxime utile est illum esse quam deterrimum.” Suetonius dicit “Fuit gracillimis cruribus.” Imbecillimus Seneca; Imbecillisimus Celsus. Nonnulli addunt agillimus et docillimus: nobis exempla non suppetunt.
Translation: Facilis, difficilis, gracilis, humilis, similis, dissimilis, produce superlatives with the syllable IS changed to LIMUS: facillimus, difficillimus, gracillimus, humillimus, simillimus, dissimillimus: likewise imbecillimus. Utilis has utilissimus. Dolabella writes “Sic enim facillime quod tibi utilissimum erit, consilii capies.” See also Pliny and Cicero use composition. “Multas ad res perutiles Xenophontis sunt libri.”. Terentius uses circumlocution: “Quibus id maxime utile est illum esse quam deterrimum.” Suetonius says “Fuit gracillimis cruribus.” Seneca says “Imbecillimus”; Celsus saus “imbecillisimus”. Some (grammarians) add “agillimus” and “docillimus”, but they do not provide any examples.
Another exception to the general rule has to do with adjectives whose nominative form end in LIS. For these, the superlative is formed by adding LIMUS rather than SIMUS. This, again, is done for the sake of smooth pronunciation (euphony). To this, however, Alvarez points out that we find various forms in the writings of the masters, such as utilissimus and imbecillisimus.
It is important to see that Alvarez also shows how the masters express ideas with different expressions in Latin. He shows that to express the idea of the superlative “most useful”, Pliny and Cicero used a compound made up of the adjective “utilis” and the preposition “per”, as “perutile” (most useful). In my studies, I have not yet been able to find the explanation of this use of “per”. Nevertheless, it is clear that it is used to express this superlative idea when joined to adjectives.
Alvarez also shows us that some authors express the idea of the superlative degree by “circumlocution” which is an important concept to understand in language. “Circumlocution” literally means “talking around” and to express a complex idea using a number of simple words. A good example of this is found in our reading of the Gospel of St. John. There is no perfect passive verb form in Latin, so St. Jerome uses the circumlocution “facta sunt” which literally means “made are” to translate the Greek verb ἐγένετο (egeneto), which means “were made”.
Likewise, instead of using the superlative form of an adjective, a writer may use a circumlocution like “maxime utile”, which means “most useful”.
Exception lll
lll. Nomina, quae ante syllabam US vocalem habent, raro comparativa aut superlativa gignunt, ut: idoneus, noxius, arduus.
Reperiuntur tamen nonnulla apud probatos scriptores, ut Lucretius, “Nam nihil egregius quam res secernere apertas – a dubiis.”, idest magis egregium; et egregius adverb, pro magis egregie utitur Juvenal; assiduor, Varro; assiduissimi usus Suetonius; assiduissime, Cicero; pars exiguissima, Ovid; strenuissimus, Sallust; et Tacitus; piissimus, Curt.; et Quintilian; quanquam Cicero; negat eiusmodi verbum esse in lingua latina. Tenuior saepe est apud Ciceronem, et Lucretiam Qua neque mobilius quicquam neque tenuius extat; sic apud Ciceronem, Quae (natura) primum oculos membranis tenuissimus vestivit et sepsit.
Translation: Nouns, which before the syllable US have a vowel, rarely produce comparatives and superlatives, as: idoneus, noxius, arduus. There are found however some with the approved authors, as Lucretius, “Nam nihil egregius quam res secernere apertas a dubiis.”, that is more egregious; and Juvenal used the adverb “egregius” for more egregiously. Varro used “assiduor”. Suetonius uses “assiduissimi”. Cicero uses “assiduissime”. Ovid uses “pars exiguissima”. Sallust and Tacitus use “strenuissimus”. Curtius and Quintilian use “piissimus”, though Cicero denies this word to exist in the Latin language. “Tenuior” is often found with Cicero and Lucretius. “Qua neque mobilius quicquam neque tenuius extat”; so with Cicero “Quae (natura) primum oculos membranis tenuissimis vestivit et sepsit.”
A third exception to the rule has to do with adjectives whose nominative form end in US but have a vowel before that ending. You can see this in the examples given: idoneus (sufficient), noxius (harmful), arduus (steep). We are told that these adjectives rarely form comparatives or superlatives. Nevertheless, we do find isolated examples in the writings of the masters.
Exception IV
V. A nominibus ex verbis facio, dico, volo compositis comparativa in ENTIOR, superlativa in ENTISSIMUS exeunt, ut: magnificus, magnificentior, magnificentissimus; maledicus, maledicentior, maledicentissimus; benevolus, benevolentior, benevolentissimus.
Translation: From nouns out of the verbs facio, dico, volo composed, comparatives in ENTIOR, superlatives in ENTISSIMUM end, as: magnificus, magnificentior, magnificentissimus; maledicus, maledicentior, maledicentissimus; benevolus, benevolentior, benevolentissimus.
In this fourth and final exception we learn that adjective nouns which are formed from certain verbs add -ENT- before the regular comparative and superlative endings. Thus, we see magnificus (excellent) made magnificentior (more excellent) and magnificentissimus (most excellent).
Summary
In this lesson, we have studied how the forms of the comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives are formed in Latin. We have learned a simple, general rule and four exceptions to that general rule.
The lessons published on this site are freely available to read. If you wish to move from reading to formal study — with graded assessments, academic records, and the support of the Academy — you may enroll at any time. Enrollment is open year round, to students of all ages.
