Before we can speak about words and sentences, we must first consider the materials out of which words are made. Just as a building is constructed from stones or bricks, language is constructed from sounds, and those sounds are represented in writing by letters. Grammar therefore begins with letters and with the sounds they signify.
The English language uses twenty-six letters.
A a B b C c D d E e F f G g H h I i J j K k L l M m N n O o P p Q q R r S s T t U u V v W w X x Y y Z z
These letters are the written signs by which we represent spoken language. Whether written as capitals or small letters, they are the same in value and use. Every English word, however long or complex, is formed from this small set of letters.
It is important to understand from the beginning that letters belong to writing, not to speech. When we speak, we do not speak letters; we speak sounds. Letters are symbols invented to represent those sounds so that speech may be preserved, read, and communicated to those who are not present. Because of this, the same letter may represent different sounds in different words, and the same sound may sometimes be written with different letters. Grammar must therefore pay attention both to what we hear and to what we see.
Among letters, the most important division is between vowels and consonants.
Vowels
Those letters which can be sounded by themselves, without the help of any other letter, are called vowels. There are five vowels in English: A, E, I, O, U. If you pronounce these letters slowly, you will notice that each can be spoken alone and can be prolonged at will. The voice flows freely through the mouth without being stopped or pressed by any part of it.
Vowel sounds are produced chiefly by the voice itself, shaped by the opening of the mouth. The tongue, lips, and palate take part, but they do not close the passage of the voice. For this reason, vowels are the foundation of all speech. Without vowels, no word can be spoken.
Sometimes two vowels are written together. When the two sounds are blended into one so that neither is entirely lost, they form what is called a diphthong. In English, the only true diphthongs are EU, OI, and OU, as in feud, oil, and out. In these cases, the sound begins as one vowel and glides into another.
More often, however, two vowels are written together merely to mark or modify a single vowel sound, as in boat, meet, or rain. Here the writing shows a vowel combination, but the ear hears only one principal sound. This again reminds us that spelling and pronunciation do not always correspond exactly.
Consonants
Those letters which cannot be sounded by themselves are called consonants. Try to pronounce the letter B or T by itself, and you will find that you cannot do so without adding some vowel-like sound. A consonant always requires a vowel sound, either expressed or implied, in order to be heard.
Consonants are formed by the action of the organs of speech, especially the lips, the tongue, and the palate. In pronouncing a consonant, the breath or the voice is checked, pressed, or guided in some way. If the consonant has no clear vowel sound joined to it, it must still have something of a hiss, a hum, or a breathing sound. For this reason, consonants cannot form speech on their own.
Two letters require special explanation because they do not always behave in the same way.
The letter Y is a consonant when it begins a word or syllable, as in yes, young, or beyond. In these cases, it helps to shape the sound and cannot stand alone. But when Y appears elsewhere, as in my, happy, or symbol, it functions as a vowel and forms the essential sound of the syllable.
The letter W also changes its function. When it follows a vowel in the same syllable, as in cow or new, it acts as part of the vowel sound rather than as a true consonant.
Syllables, Words, and Sentences
From letters and sounds we pass naturally to syllables. A syllable is formed when a vowel sound is pronounced either by itself or together with one or more consonants. Every syllable must contain a vowel sound, for without a vowel there can be no utterance. Thus the word cat has one syllable; the word paper has two, pa and per; and the word education has four, e–du–ca–tion.
Syllables, whether standing alone or joined with others, form spoken words. A spoken word is not a mere sound made by the voice. It is a sound used with meaning. When a person speaks the word tree, the sound uttered is taken by the hearer as a sign of an idea in the mind. In this way, spoken words serve as signs by which we communicate our thoughts to one another.
Written words belong to another order. A written word is not itself a sound, but a visible mark made with letters. Its purpose is to stand for a spoken word. The written word tree signifies the spoken sound tree, and through that spoken sound it signifies the idea. We must therefore remember that spoken words are signs of ideas, while written words are signs of spoken words. Speech comes first; writing exists to represent speech.
Spoken words are then joined together to form sentences. A sentence is a group of words arranged so as to express a complete thought. For example, the words birds and sing each signify something by themselves, but when we say Birds sing, we do more than name ideas—we assert something complete. A sentence, therefore, is the simplest form in which thought is fully expressed.
Grammar is concerned with explaining this whole process. It teaches how sounds are represented by letters, how syllables are formed from sounds, how spoken words are formed from syllables, and how words are arranged into sentences so that meaning may be conveyed clearly and correctly.
By beginning with letters and sounds, we lay the groundwork for all that follows. Grammar proceeds in an orderly way: from sounds to syllables, from syllables to spoken words, and from words to sentences. A clear understanding of these first elements will make every later part of grammar easier to understand and more firmly grasped.
