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We now begin the study of prepositions, one of the parts of speech that does not change its form. Earlier we learned that there are eight parts of speech: noun, pronoun, verb, and participle, and then adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. The first four are declined, which means that they take different forms to express different ideas. The last four are undeclined, which means that they keep one form and do not vary. Most of the labor of grammar has been spent learning the parts of speech that decline, because each of them requires us to master many different endings and forms. Now we turn to the parts of speech that do not decline, and for that reason the work becomes lighter and clearer. Even so, we must be exact, because prepositions govern cases, and that is a matter of strict correctness rather than guesswork.
The name “preposition” tells us what it is. It is formed from pre, meaning “before,” and positus, meaning “placed.” A preposition is therefore “placed before.” It is a part of speech that is normally placed before another part of speech, especially before nouns, pronouns, and participles. A preposition cannot serve as the subject of a sentence, because it is not the name of a person or thing. Instead, it exists to show the relationship between other words in a sentence. When we need to express how one thing relates to another—whether by place, time, means, cause, source, accompaniment, separation, direction, or substitution—Latin often does so by using a preposition together with a noun or pronoun in a particular case. That is what it means to say that a preposition “governs” a case: it requires that the word following it be put in a particular case, and the relationship is expressed by the preposition and that case together.
We have already met many prepositions in our reading, even if we have not yet analyzed them formally. When we read In principio erat Verbum et Verbum erat apud Deum, we can see immediately that in and apud are prepositions. They do not name things; they show relationships. In the first clause, we have verbum as the subject and principio in the Ablative case. Without a preposition, the relationship between those nouns would be unclear or would be expressed wrongly. We cannot say Principium erat Verbum, because that would mean “The beginning was the Word,” which is not what is being said in that line. By placing in before principio and using the Ablative case, the line expresses that principio is the time in which the Word already was. In the second clause, we have Verbum as the subject and Deum in the Accusative case. We could say Verbum erat Deus, but that would say something different. By placing apud before Deum and using the Accusative case, the line expresses that the Word was with God, that is, together with Him. The relationship is not discovered by guessing; it is made clear by the preposition and the case it governs.
When we read Omnia per ipsum facta sunt et sine ipso factum est nihil, we again see prepositions doing their work. In the first clause, omnia is the subject and ipsum is a pronoun in the Accusative case. If we merely placed the words together without a preposition, we would produce nonsense, as if “all things were made him.” By placing per before ipsum and using the Accusative, the line expresses that “through him” all things were made, that is, that he is the agent or the means by which the making occurred. In the second clause, nihil is the subject and ipso is a pronoun in the Ablative case. If we simply put ipso into the line without sine, we could easily end up with the opposite meaning, as if nothing was made “from him.” By placing sine before ipso and using the Ablative, the line expresses exclusion: nothing was made without him. Again the relationship is specified, not left vague.
When we read De plenitudine eius nos omnes accepimus et gratiam pro gratia, we see the same precision. In the first clause, we have nos as the subject and plenitudine in the Ablative case. If we merely used the Ablative without a preposition, the relationship might be taken in several different ways, because the Ablative can be used to express several kinds of relations. By placing de before plenitudine and using the Ablative, the line makes the meaning clear: “from his fullness,” that is, fullness is the source from which we have received. In the second clause, we have gratiam as a direct object and gratia in the Ablative. Without a preposition, the relation could be heard as “with grace,” “by grace,” “from grace,” or other possibilities. By placing pro before gratia, the relation is fixed: “grace in place of grace.” The preposition does not merely decorate the sentence; it prevents confusion and forces the meaning into clarity.
From this we can see what matters most as we learn prepositions. First, we must learn the meaning of each preposition as we encounter it. Second, we must learn what case or cases it governs, because Latin correctness depends on that governance. A preposition is not free to take any case we please. It demands a certain case, and that demand is part of its meaning.
We must also understand that prepositions come in two basic kinds: separable and inseparable. Every preposition can be joined to a verb to form a compound verb. Some prepositions can be used both by themselves as separate words and also as prefixes joined to verbs. These are separable, because they can appear either separated or conjoined in one word. For example, we can say Eo ad templum, “I go to the church,” where ad stands as a separate preposition before templum. But we can also say Adeo praeceptorem, “I go to the master,” where ad is joined to the verb as a prefix. In both cases the same preposition is present; only its position differs. Other prepositions are used in compounds but not by themselves. These are inseparable, because they cannot be separated from the words they are put before. Examples include ambi-, con-, dis-, re-, and se- as in ambigo, confero, disputo, reputo, and sejungo. We need to recognize these, so that we neither separate them wrongly when we compose Latin nor fail to notice them when we read or hear them.
Since prepositions govern cases, we must memorize which ones require the Accusative, which require the Ablative, and which can govern either case. There are thirty-two common prepositions that require the Accusative case: ad, apud, ante, adversus, adversum, cis, citra, circum, circa, contra, erga, extra, intra, inter, infra, iuxta, ob, pone, per, prope, propter, post, secundum, trans, ultra, praeter, supra, circiter, usque, secus, versus, penes. These must be learned exactly, because the case after them is not optional.
There are also common prepositions that require the Ablative case, and we must learn these as carefully: a, ab, abs, cum, coram, clam, de, ex, pro, prae, palam, sine, absque, tenus. These likewise demand the Ablative, and if we put an Accusative after them we are simply wrong.
Finally, there are four common prepositions that can govern either the Ablative or the Accusative: in, sub, super, and subter. With these, the case changes the sense. In particular, in with the Accusative carries the idea “to” or “into,” while in with the Ablative carries the idea of rest “in.” Thus we say in urbem meaning “into the city,” and in urbe meaning “in the city.” The other three—sub, super, and subter—keep the same basic meaning with either case, but we must still learn that they can be used with both.
If we grasp these points, we will understand what prepositions are doing whenever we meet them in Latin. They are not names of things, but instruments of relation. They make meaning precise by governing cases. Our work is therefore straightforward: we memorize their meanings, we memorize the cases they govern, we learn to recognize them when they stand alone, and we learn to recognize them when they are joined to verbs as inseparable prefixes. As we continue our study of the remaining undeclined parts of speech, we will see how prepositions resemble adverbs and conjunctions in certain ways, and when that is clear, the parts of speech that remain will seem simple and orderly.
Memory Work
1. REVIEW: How many parts of speech are there?
There are eight parts of speech: Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Participle; Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection. The first four are declined, the last four are undeclined.
2. What is a preposition?
A preposition is a part of speech, which almost always is put before other parts, either separate from or conjoined in one word.
3. How many sorts of prepositions are there?
Two: separable and inseparable.
4. What are the two kinds of separable prepositions?
The two kinds of separable prepositions are:
Separate, as: Eo ad templum. (I go to the church.) and
Conjoined, as: Adeo praeceptorem. (I go to the master.)
5. Which prepositions require an Accusative case?
These 32 common prepositions that require the Accusative case: ad, apud, ante, adversus, adversum, cis, citra, circum, circa, contra, erga, extra, intra, inter, infra, iuxta, ob, pone, per, prope, propter, post, secundum, trans, ultra, praeter, supra, circiter, usque, secus, versus, penes2.
6. Which prepositions require an Ablative case?
These 13 common prepositions require the Ablative case: a, ab3, abs, cum, coram, clam, de, ex, pro, prae, palam, sine, absque, tenus.
7. How many prepositions govern an Ablative or Accusative case?
These 4 common prepositions govern both the Ablative and Accusative cases: in, translated with the sign “to” with the Accusative case and without this sign with the Ablative case, as in urbem (into the city), in urbe (in the city); along with sub, super, subter whose meaning is the same with either case.
8. Which Prepositions are called Inseparable?
Those which cannot be separated from the words which they are put before, as ambi-, con-, dis-, re- and se- as in ambigo, confero, disputo, reputo, sejungo.
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