Lesson XX. Of Conjunctions

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In Lesson 01, we learned that there are eight parts of speech and that the eight parts of speech are divided into two groups.  At the time, you probably had no idea what this meant, but now you will:

15.  How many parts of speech are there?
There are eight parts of speech: Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Participle; Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection.  The first four are declined, the last four are undeclined. 

The eighth (and final) part of speech we will study in Grammar I is the Conjunction .  We can look to the name of this part of speech for its definition.   The word is formed from the preposition con (together) and the participle junctum (joined), meaning “joined together”.  A conjunction is a part of speech, that joins together words, phrases, clauses, sentences–even whole paragraphs.  

Before we get into a detailed study of conjunctions, let’s take a moment to reflect upon what we’ve been learning in Grammar, for behind all of this is a desire to speak what is true and to do so clearly. 

In reasoning, the mind works to conjoin things that agree or are alike and to disjoin things that disagree or are not alike.  Our minds are constantly comparing and contrasting things we see, hear, smell, feel and taste.   This is called judgment or predication.  When we speak, we use spoken symbols (words) to represent those ideas.  When we express a judgment, we name a subject (what we are thinking about) and a predicate (the judgment made about it) to form a proposition.  A simple proposition will contain only one clause–one subject and predicate.  The predicate is composed of two parts–the noun to which the subject is being joined and a verb that conjoins them.  This verb is called a copula.  (Any bit of speech that does not have a subject and predicate is called a phrase.)  Here are some examples of simple propositions, in which the predicate is underlined:

• The earth is  round.
• The earth is  solid.
• The earth is  dry.
• The field is  flat.
• All men are  animals.
• All women are  animals.
• Socrates is  a man.
• Socrates is  an animal.

While the use of simple propositions is useful in reasoning, it is not pleasant to listen to or read.  As one of the basic rules of speech is to use as few words as possible to share an idea, we can condense multiple simple propositions to form more complicated sentences like these:

• The earth is solid and round.
• All men and women are animals.
• The earth is round but the field is flat.
• The earth is solid because it is dry.
• All men are animals and Socrates is a man therefore Socrates is an animal.

These are more pleasant to the ear, but more difficult to understand logically.  For example, the next-to-last sentence can be more clearly understood as follows:

• [Granted] All dry things are solid.
• The earth is dry.
• Thus, the earth is solid. 

Now, here we find clearer reasoning, but above we had more pleasant speech because of our use of conjunctions.  What we can see is that conjunctions are parts of speech that allow us to not only conjoin words, phrases and clauses, but also to mark the reasoning present in our speech when it is condensed.  As the conjunctions we use represent different kinds of connections and disconnections, distinctions, conditions, reasons, conclusions and so on, we can arrange the conjunctions into categories based on these uses.

Coordinate and Subordinate Conjunctions

When we join clauses together, the clauses will have different relationships.  Clauses may be independent or dependent.  An independent clause is one that can stand by itself in speech. A dependent clause is one that isn’t meant to stand by itself, but to add information to another clause on which it depends. 

1. Vidit Deus lucem et divisit lucem ac tenebras.
   Saw   God [the] light and separated [the] light and [the] darkness.

2. Misit Deus Filium suum in mundum, ut      salvetur    mundus.
     Sent    God     Son   his own into [the] world, that might be saved [the] world.

In sentence (1) above, we have a compound sentence made up of two independent clauses.  Both clauses can stand alone and have meaning.  We say that these two clauses are coordinate and the conjunction et is a coordinate conjunction.

In sentence (2) above we have a complex sentence made up of one independent clause and one dependent clause.  The clause Misit Deus Filium suum in mundum makes perfect sense when standing alone and is an independent clause.  The clause Ut salvetur mundus is a clause that cannot stand alone and have meaning and is a dependent clause.  To have meaning it must added to the independent clause Misit Deus Filium suum in mundum.  We say that the dependent clause is subordinate to the independent clause in this sentences and that the conjunction ut is a subordinate conjunction.

Thus, we can see that conjunctions can be set into two categories based on whether they join coordinate or subordinate clauses.  However, traditionally, the conjunctions were set into 14 different categories based on their basic meanings.  Below, we will look at each of the 14 categories of conjunctions and study their uses in detail.

Conjunction Significations

Conjunctions not only allow us to join words and phrases and sentences together, they also allow us to do so in many different ways.  In your memory work below, you will see that we place conjunctions into different categories based on different powers or significations they have.  For example, the conjunctions ET, AC and QUOQUE  all share the same function and so are categorized together as you’ll see below.  Knowing the categories will help you in reading because, although you may be stuck trying to remember the exact meaning of a conjunction, you will be able to keep moving by simplying remembering what category it belongs to.   The real reason why these categories are important is because when we move on later to the study of Reasoning, we will learn that these little conjunctions create all kinds of challenges when we wish to prove arguments true or false. Therefore, in learning these categories, you will receive help now in your Latin reading, but also in your advamnced studies in the future .  Let us take a brief look at each of the 14 categories of conjunctions below, with some descriptions and examples from the Latin Bible.

1.  Copulative Conjunctions

Conjunctions: et (alone and doubled), que, atque, ac, quoque, etiam, item, itidem, cum, tum (doubled), nec, neque, neu, neve
Basic Meaning:  both,and

The first group of conjunctions are grouped together and called “copulatives”.  The Latin word copula means a band or tie, so anything that ties things together could be called a “copula“.  Copulatives are the conjunctions which serve the most basic function of conjunction–of simply conjoining two or more terms wither in a subject or predicate.   

Iudaei atque Gentiles audirent verbum Domini.
The Jews and Gentiles might hear the word of the Lord.

Adsumit Iesus Petrum et Iacobum et Iohannem…
Jesus took with him Peter both James and John…

One thing to note is that the copulative que is actually a suffix added to the end of a word which is being conjoined to one that has gone before.  

…qui ex Patre Filioque procedit.
…who proceeds from the Father and the Son.

In Logic, a copulative proposition is one that is composed of two separate simple propositions.  It must be true in all of its parts to be true as a whole.   So, if one were to assert that, (1) “All apples are red and sweet.”  the conjunction AND would join two simple propositions:  It is true that BOTH (A) All apples are red. AND (B) All apples are sweet.   For the proposition to be true, both of its parts (A) AND (B) must be true. The conjunction binds them both together into one.  If either is false, the entire proposition is false.

2.  Disjunctive Conjunctions

Conjunctions: ac, aut, ve, vel, seu, sive
Basic Meaning:  either/or

The second group of conjunctions are called “disjunctives”–which should seem to make no sense.  To “conjoin” means to join together, while to “disjoin” means to break apart.  How then can we have a “disjunctive conjunction”?!  

Whereas a copulative conjunction connects two or more terms, a disjunctive conjunction connects one of two or more terms.   

Qui amat patrem aut matrem plus quam me non est me dignus.
Whoever loves father or mother more than Me is not worthy of Me.

Qui maledixerit patri vel matri–moret moriatur.
Whoever curses his father or mother–let him die the death.

In the examples above, you can see that the conjunctions join only one of those two phrases to the rest of the sentence.   In reasoning, again, this is important.  If it was said, “Whoever curses his father and his mother shall die.”, then a man might curse his father but not his mother and not break the law.  After all, it says father and mother.  The copulative conjunction suggests that both must be held as one.  The disjunctive conjunction unites them in speech, but connects only one of them to what follows, so that cursing either one of them makes a man worthy of death.

In Logic, a disjunctive proposition is one that is composed of two separate simple propositions, one of which must be true for the original proposition to be true.  So, if one were to assert that, (1) “All apples are red or green.” the conjunction “or” would join two simple propositions and the argument would be:  EITHER (A) All apples are red. OR (B) All apples are green.   For the proposition to be true, either (A) or (B) must be true for any apple.  The conjunction allows for no other options.  If both parts are false, then the whole proposition is false.

We should note that the conjunctions can be strengthened in English by the use of the terms “BOTH/AND” and “EITHER/OR” as well as the negative, “NEITHER/NOR”.  The words “both” and “either” are not conjunctions themselves, but are adjectives (they pass the “thing” test).  They are used to strengthen the conjunction’s meaning.  In Latin, this is expressed by doubling the conjunction, that is, setting the conjunction before each of the terms that are conjoined.   Here are some examples:

Quis est iste quia et ventus et mare oboediunt ei?
Who is that man that both the wind and the sea obey him?

Neque est alius Deus vel in caelo vel in terra.
For there is no other God either in heaven or earth.

Nolite iurare neque per caelum neque per terram…
Swear not, neither by heaven, nor by the earth…

When we are reading, the first conjunction–having not followed anything–alerts us to the fact that a conjunction is coming.  We are then expecting to hear more than one thing to be connected.  Since these doubled conjunctions set us in suspense of what is to follow, they are called “Suspensives”, but we will not consider this to be a separate category of conjunctions.  We will learn more about doubles conjunctions later in this lesson.

3.  Discretive Conjunctions

Conjunctions:  sed, quidem, autem, vero, at, ast, sed, enim, atqui, quoque, caeterum, enimvero, quod si, verum, porro, quin
Basic Meaning:   but, however

The third group of conjunctions are grouped together and called “discretives”.  A discretive conjunction distinguishes parts of a sentence with an interruption of the thought of the hearer, showing that what follows is not what might have been expected. 

Multa habeo vobis dicere sed non potestis portare modo.
I have many things to say to you, but you cannot bear them now.

Messis multa operarii autem pauci.
The harvest is great, the workers, however, are few.

Note:  Some conjunctions (of any category) are called “postpositives” because they always come after the first word or phrase in a clause.  In the first example above, sed comes before the second clause, while in the second example autem comes after the first word of the second clause because it is a “postpositive”. 

4.  Causal Conjunctions

Conjunctions: nam, namque, enim, etenim, quia, ut, quod, quum, quoniam, quippe, siquidem, quandoquidem, propterea quod, quatenus, et, quo
Basic Meaning:  for, because

Causals are conjunctions that connect the reasons to a statement going before, as:

Civitas non eget sole, nam claritas Dei inluminavit eam.
The city hath no need of the sun, for the glory of God hath enlightened it.

Haec vocabitur virago quoniam de viro sumpta est.
She shall be called ‘woman’, because she was taken from man.

5.  Conditional Conjunctions

Conjunctions: si, sin, modo, dum, dummodo
Basic Meaning:   if

A conditional conjunction is used to introduce a condition to a statement:

Cor meum gaudebit si sapiens fuerit animus tuus.
My heart will rejoice if your heart is wise.

Nec facio animam pretiosam dummodo consummem ministerium meum.
I do not count my life precious, if only I may fulfill my ministry.

6. Exceptive Conjunctions

Conjunctions: ni, nisi, quin, alioquin, praeterquam
Basic Meaning:  except

An exceptiive conjunction is used to join a word or phrase that is given as an exception to the proposition.

Nemo bonus nisi unus Deus.
No one is good except God alone.

Nec distulit adulescens quin quod petebatur expleret.
The boy made no delay but fulfilled what was required.

7.  Interrogative Conjunctions

Conjunctions:  ne, an, utrum, necne, anne, nonne, num, numquid
Basic Meaning:  whether?

Interrogative conjunctions are those which introduce a question or express some doubt that seeks a response, as:

Nonne hic est Jesus filius Ioseph?
Is this not Jesus the son of Joseph?

Numquid Deo quidquam est difficile?
Whether to God anything is difficult?

8.  Rational Conjunctions

Conjunctions:  ergo, ideo, igitur, quare, itaque, proin, idcirco, quambrem, quocirca, proinde, propterea, ob eam rem, ea re
Basic Meaning:  therefore

Rationals are those conjunctions which connect some statement that rationally (by reason) follows from what goes before it.

Si Christus non resurrexit inanis est ergo fides vestra.
If Christ has not risen again then vain is your faith.

Omnium finis adpropinquavit itaque estote prudentes.
The end of all is at hand, therefore be wise.

9.  Perfective Conjunctions

Conjunctions: ut, uti, ne
Basic Meaning:  so that

Perfectives are conjunctions that reveal the purpose, object or end of an action.

Sit vestrum est est non non uti non sub iudicio decidatis.
Let your yes be yes and your no be no, that you may not fall under judgment.

Misit Deus Filium suum in mundum, ut salvetur mundus.
God sent His Son into the world, that the world might be saved.

10. Adversitive Conjunctions

Conjunctions:  etsi, quamquam, quamvis, licet, esto, tametsi, aliae id genus
Basic Meaning:  even though

Adversitive conjunctions are used when we wish to grant to the hearer a statement that may seem adverse to what has been said or to supply a correction or limitation to what has been said. 

Dimittas populo tuo quamvis peccatori.
Forgive thy people, even though they have sinned.

Minum diligar licet plus vos diligens.
I am loved less even though I am loving you more.

11.  Redditive Conjunctions

Conjunctions:    tamen, attamen, veruntamen
Basic Meaning:  nevertheless

Redditive conjunctions are very much like adversatives we’ve studied above, but differ in that they refer back to something which was spoken of before.  Thus, they help the speaker in forming “periods”, that is, sentences that refer back to what was said at the beginning of the sentence to complete the sentence.  We will look at only one example here because it requires a quote of some length:

At in quamcumque civitatem intraveritis dicite illis ‘Adpropinquavit in vos regnum Dei.’.  In quamcumque civitatem intraveritis et non receperint vos…tamen hoc scitote quia adpropinquavit regnum Dei.
And into what city soever you enter say to them: ‘The kingdom of God is at hand.’  But into whatsoever city you enter, and they receive you not…nevertheless know this, that the kingdom of God is at hand.

Here, you can see that the speech begins with “the Kingdom of God is at hand”.  Our Lord then speaks of what the disciples should do if they are not received by the people.  Then, in the end, using a redditive conjunction tamen, he brings us back to the original focus:  “the kingdom of God is at hand.”  This is the function of a redditive conjunction–to return attention to something spoken before.

12.  Elective Conjunctions

Conjunctions:  quam, atque, ac, ut (when used in place of quam). 
Basic Meaning:  rather than

Elective conjunctions are used to join different options that exist.

Expedit tibi ut pereat unum membrorum tuorum quam totum corpus tuum.
It is expedient that one (ut unum) of thy members should perish, rather than your whole (quam totum) body.

13.  Diminutive Conjunctions

Conjunction:  saltem, at, certe, vel
Basic Meaning:   at the least

Diminutive conjunctions are diminutive adverbs serving the function of conjunctions in speech.  The name “diminutive” means “lessening”, and these are words or phrases that signify a lessening from one statement to another, while binding them together.  Please note that discerning between adverbs and conjunctions in such situations can be nearly impossible at times–and these normally are adverbs serving the purpose of a conjunction in a sentence. 

Et rogabant eum ut vel fimbriam vestimenti eius tangerent.
And they begged him that they might at least touch the hem of his garment.

Miseremini mei miseremini mei saltim vos amici mei.
Have mercy on me, have mercy on me, at least you my friends.

14.  Expletive Conjunctions

Conjunctions: quidem, equidem, nimirum, autem, scilicet, quoque, nam, profecto, vero, enimvero, sedenim, enim (for certe)
Basic Meaning:  truly, now (resumes a thought, fills in a transition)

Expletive conjunctions are those which “fill out” (explere) sentences when transitions are made.  These are not used to add or improve the sense or meaning of a passage, but may improve the flow of the sentences, the rhythm of the reading, the meter of the lines, etc..  The most common translations of the expletive conjunctions are “now” and “truly”.  “Now” resumes a thought, as if the speaker said, “Now let us continue what I was saying…”.  The translation “truly” stands in place of phrase something like, “Truly I say this…”  Again, these conjunctions may add some emphasis or call attention to a statement, but normally, they’re simply filling some space.

Certe novi cogitationes vestras.
Truly, I have known your thoughts.

See above that God is not saying “I know your thoughts truly.”  He is saying, “Truly [I tell you that] I have known your thoughts.”

Est autem haec parabola semen est verbum Dei…Nam qui supra petram qui cum audierint cum gaudio.
The seed is the word of God….Now they upon the rock, are they who when they hear, receive the word with joy.

See above that Our Lord was not saying, “They upon the rock at this time…”.  He is saying, “To continue now what I was saying…”

Summary

In this lesson, we have studied the eighth and final part of speech:  Conjunctions.  We have learned and reviewed a good deal of Grammar, have learned the definition of Conjunctions and have learned the two different ways in which Conjunctions can be grouped.  With the end of this lesson, our study of the eight parts of speech–their forms, meanings and basic uses–is complete.   After completing your exercises and examination, you will be finished with Latin Grammar I!  You will be ready to begin Grammar II in which we will begin studying Latin construction, learning how the parts of speech are put together to speak and write in Latin.  The hardest work is behind you.  Congratulations!

Memory Work

With this lesson, we review the rules of the first declension of Latin nouns.

1. How many different terminations are found in the Nominative case of the Second Declension?
Four: -er, as hic Liber (a book); -ir, as hic Vir (a man); -us, as hic Dominus (a Lord); -um, as hoc Templum (a Temple).

2. How are Second Declension nouns with Nominative in -er and -ir declined?
As hic Liber and hic Vir: with Genitive in -i; Dative in -o; Accusative in -um; Vocative like the Nominative; Ablative in -o. In the plural, Nominative in -i; Genitive in -orum; Dative in -is; Accusative in -os; Vocative like the Nominative; Ablative in -is.

In short: -er/-ir, -i, -o | -um, -er/-ir, -o | -i, -orum, -is | -os, -i, -is.

3. Decline the Second Declension noun hic Liber. (State the case name, the Latin form and the English.)
Singulariter: Nominativo, hic Liber, a Book; Genitivo, Libri, of a Book; Dativo, Libro, to a Book; Accusativo, Librum, a Book; Vocativo, O Liber, O Book; Ablativo, a Libro, from a Book. Pluraliter: Nominativo, Libri, Books; Genitivo, Librorum, of Books; Dativo, Libris, to Books; Accusativo, Libros, Books; Vocativo, O Libri, O Books; Ablativo, a Libris, from Books.

In short: Liber, Libri, Libro | Librum, O Liber, a Libro | Libri, Librorum, Libris | Libros, O Libri, a Libris.

Note: The stem of the noun Liber is Libr-, so endings are not added to liber but libr-.

4. How are Second Declension nouns with Nominative in -us declined?
Nouns that end in -us have the Nominative in -us, as Dominus, a Lord; Vocative, O Domine, O Lord, except Deus, O Deus, O God.

In short: -us, -i, -o | -um, -e, -o | -i, -orum, -is | -os, -i, -is.

5. Decline the Second Declension noun hic Dominus. (State the case name, the Latin form and the English.)
Singulariter: Nominativo, hic Dominus, a Lord; Genitivo, Domini, of a Lord; Dativo, Domino, to a Lord; Accusativo, Dominum, a Lord; Vocativo, O Domine, O Lord; Ablativo, a Domino, from a Lord. Pluraliter: as Liber.

In short: Dominus, Domini, Domino | Dominum, O Domine, a Domino | Domini, Dominorum, Dominis | Dominos, O Domini, a Dominis.

6. How are Second Declension Proper nouns with Nominative in -ius declined?
Proper Nouns that end in -ius, have the Vocative in -i, as Antonius, O Antoni. To this we may add filius (a son), O fili.

In short: -ius, -i, -o | -um, -i, -o | -i, -orum, -is | -os, -i, -is.

7. How are Second Declension nouns with Nominative in -eus declined?
Nouns that end in -eus, have the Vocative in -eu, as Orpheus, O Orpheu.

In short: -eus, -i, -o | -um, -eu, -o | -i, -orum, -is | -os, -i, -is.

8. How are Second Declension nouns with Nominative in -um declined?
As hoc Templum: with Genitive in -i; Dative in -o; Accusative and Vocative like the Nominative; Ablative in -o. In the plural, Nominative in -a; Genitive in -orum; Dative in -is; Accusative and Vocative like the Nominative; Ablative in -is.

In short: -um, -i, -o | -um, -um, -o | -a, -orum, -is | -a, -a, -is.

9. Decline the Second Declension noun hoc Templum. (State the case name, the Latin form and the English.)
Singulariter: Nominativo, hoc Templum, a Temple; Genitivo, Templi, of a Temple; Dativo, Templo, to a Temple; Accusativo, Templum, a Temple; Vocativo, O Templum, O Temple; Ablativo, a Templo, from a Temple. Pluraliter: Nominativo, Templa, Temples; Genitivo, Templorum, of Temples; Dativo, Templis, to Temples; Accusativo, Templa, Temples; Vocativo, O Templa, O Temples; Ablativo, a Templis, from Temples.

In short: Templum, Templi, Templo | Templum, O Templum, a Templo | Templa, Templorum, Templis | Templa, O Templa, a Templis.

10. What is special about Second Declension nouns ending in -um?
All Second Declension nouns ending in -um are of the Neuter gender.

11. What special rules apply to the declension of Neuter Nouns?
Neuter Nouns, in any declension, have three cases alike in both numbers: the Nominative, the Accusative and the Vocative, which always end in -a in the Plural, except for the words ambo and duo, which end in -o.

12. Summary of the Second Declension:

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