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27. It would soon be found convenient, though not necessary, to indicate by an alteration in the form of a substantive, whether one was spoken of, or more than one.
28. It would be possible to invent forms to indicate many particulars with respect to number: but such forms would probably be very clumsy and unmanageable, and the end is more simply and conveniently attained by the addition of a numeral adjective to those forms of a noun which indicate that more than one are spoken of.
29. In some languages, as in Hebrew and Greek, there is a form called the dual (from duo, two), which is used to indicate that two are spoken of. In English, as in Latin and many other languages, we have only two numbers, as they are called; the singular, which indicates that we are speaking of one; the plural, which indicates that we are speaking of more than one.
30. The plural number of a substantive is the substantive so altered as to express that we are speaking of more than one.
31. The plural of a substantive is generally formed by adding s to the singular, that is to the substantive itself. But to this rule there are some exceptions.
32. (a) Substantives that end in ch, sh, s, x, or o after a consonant, add -es to the singular.
(b) Many that end in f, and fe, form their plural in -ves.
(c) Those that end in y after a consonant, form their plural in -ies.
Counter Exceptions
33. (a) Of those in o after a consonant, canto, tyro, quarto, and occasionally some others, are generally written cantos, &c. in the plural.
(b) When ch is pronounced hard, like k, s only is added.
(c) Words that end in oof, ief (except thief, thieves) ff (except staff, staves; leaf, leaves), do not change f into v.
(d) Several nouns have peculiar forms in the plural. In some of these the vowels of the word are changed: in goose, foot, and tooth, oo is changed into ee (geese, feet, teeth); in mouse and louse, ou is changed into i, and s into c (mice, lice); others form the plural in en, which stands as an added syllable in ox, oxen, and child, children; and takes the place of the singular termination in man, woman (men, women). Die, sow, and penny, have in the plural, dice, swine, pence. Brother (brethren), brethren.
34. Die takes dies, when it means a stamp for coining. Brother makes brothers, except when it is used to denote persons of the same society or profession: ‘The United Brethren;’ ‘My Christian brethren;’ ‘His medical brethren look shy upon him.’ Penny makes pennies, when the particular coin is meant, and not the sum or value.
35. Abstract substantives, when used as such, have no plural.
(a) But abstract substantives are often used in the plural to express particular acts agreeing with the general notion. Thus we have in the Liturgy, negligences and ignorances, for sins of negligence and ignorance: and Hume uses insolences for acts of insolence. So kindnesses for acts of kindness, and sometimes providences for acts of providential interference.
(b) The plural of abstract substantives in y is used to compare the different degree in which the abstract quality exists in different substances. ‘The respective affinities of lead and iron for manganese.’ ‘The specific gravities of oil and water.’
36. Ashes, bellows, bowels, lungs, scissors, have no singular.
(a) Deer, sheep, are both singular and plural. “Fish is used collectively for the race of fishes.”—Johnson.
(b) Names of materials have no plural, except when different kinds or varieties are spoken of. “Sugar is dear.” “There is a heavy duty upon wine.” But we may say, “Fine sugars are dearer.” “There is a heavy duty upon French wines.”
(c) The names of sciences ending in -ics, are sometimes used as singular nouns.
(d) Folk is properly a noun of multitude; but the plural is used to express individuals of a particular character.— “Merry folks,” “plain folks.”
(e) Means is both singular and plural: mean is now used only to express the middle between two extremes; the point of neither too much or too little.
(f) News is generally singular, but is now and then found in the plural.
(g) Pains is generally plural, but is often found in the singular. Crombie observes that we can say, much pains, though much cannot be used with a plural noun.
(h) Riches and alms are now considered plural. The translators of the Bible used them as either singular or plural. They often use ‘much riches.’ (Tobit 4:10): “Alms do deliver,” &c.; and in the next verse, “Alms is a good gift unto all that give it in the sight of the Most High.”
(i) Wages appears to be used as a singular noun in the Bible: “The wages of sin is death.” (Rom. 6:23). “Appoint me thy wages, and I will give it.” (Gen. 30:28). Also Tobit 4:14.
(j) Amends is used as a singular noun.
37. With respect to the plural of proper names, usage is still unsettled. Some persons would say “the Miss Thompsons”, others “the Misses Thompson”: the former mode is clearly more in keeping with the general practice of the language, and one’s leaning at first would be toward it: but those who plume themselves on their accuracy adopt the latter; and at all events they can allege the authority of Swift, who writes, “I went to the Ladies Butler’s.” Middleton writes, “Among the Scipio’s, Paullus’s, Marius’s, Pompey’s,” &c.; and he forms the plural of foreign words in a by adding -s, with the mark of apostrophe. “He denounced anathema’s against all who did so.” “Three periods distinguished by as many remarkable epocha’s.” In one of Cowper’s letters (Southey’s edition) I find, “you and all your et ceteras with you.”
38. With respect to the Miss Thompsons, or the Misses Thompson, I am decidedly for the Miss Thompsons: no one would think of speaking as we are told we ought to write. I should form the plural regularly, except where the termination of the proper name would be altered by doing so. “the Pompeys,” “the Scipios,” “the Mariuses.” — “The Miss Brady’s.”
I should also give a plural termination to the names of the vowels in this way. “In the genitive of the fifth (Latin) declension, e is long when it stands between two i’s.”
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